Fall in Elderly

1 The Role of Tai Chi Exercise in Promoting Health Benefits for Older Persons Fuzhong Li, Ph. D. , Oregon Research Institute Tai Chi, or Taijiquan to be exact, originated in China about 300 hundreds years ago (China Sports, 1980) and began as a form of martial arts like boxing. It has continued to evolve from being originally used as a combative and self-defense form to a health-enhancing exercise, practiced by individuals of all ages to maintain health and prevent disease. As an alternative exercise, Tai Chi has drawn increasing research interest, with accumulating evidence showing the therapeutic value of Tai Chi to overall health and well-being. The goal of this paper is to summarize current research findings with a particular focus on geriatric populations, discuss findings with respect to their practical implications, and highlight future research directions. Overview of Research Findings A number of excellent review articles exist showing evidence that Tai Chi generates various health benefits for individuals of varying age groups and patient populations (Fasko & Grueninger, 2001; Lan, Lai, & Chen, 2002; Li, Hong, & Chan, 2001; Verhagen, Immink, va der Meulen et al. , 2004; Wang, Collet, & Lau, 2004; Wayne, Krebs, Wolf, et al. , 2004; Wu, 2002). Without overdue redundancy, the following provides a summary review of research studies that involve randomized controlled trials (RCTs) although results from non-RCTs are reported in the absence of RCTs. With aging processes, declines in physical and mental status in older adults often result in balance control impairments, functional limitations in locomotor activities, disability in particular activities, and decreased quality of life. Therefore, this review also focuses on health outcomes that have been shown to be clinically most relevant to this population. These include balance and falls, musculoskeletal conditions, sleep quality, cardiovascular and respiratory function, and psychosocial wellbeing. Balance Control, Falls, and Fear of Falling Falls are significant public health problem among older adults (Murphy, 2000; Stevens, 2005), making it a major threat to the independence and quality of life of older adults, as well as imposing significant burden to individuals, society, and national health systems (National Action Plan, 2005). As a stand-alone exercise intervention, Tai Chi has been shown to reduce the risk for falls. Wolf and his colleagues (1996) conducted the very first randomized controlled trial comparing the efficacy of two methods of exercise on falls. Community living healthy adults were randomized to one of three groups: Tai Chi training; computerized balance training; and an attention control. Results of this 15-week trial showed that Tai Chi participants experienced significant reductions (by about 47%) in falls compared to the exercise control participants. In a follow-up 48-week RCT, Wolf et al (2003) evaluated Tai Chi with older adults who were less robust (that is, transitioning to frailty). No significant between-experimental group reductions in falls were observed. However, by analyzing fall data from month four through month twelve, the study showed a significantly reduced risk of falls in the Tai chi group compared with the exercise control group. In an independent study, Li et al. (2005) confirmed the general findings of those reported by Wolf and his colleagues. These researchers reported that, at the end of a 6-month Tai Chi intervention, significantly fewer falls (38 versus 73), lower proportions of fallers (28% versus 46%), and injurious falls (7% versus 18%) were observed in the Tai Chi condition, compared to a low-impact stretching control condition. Overall, the risk of multiple falls in the Tai Chi group was 55% lower than that of the stretching controls. In addition, compared to stretching control participants, Tai Chi participants showed significant improvements in measures of functional balance, physical performance, and reduced fear of falling. Of equal importance, intervention gains in these measures were maintained at a 6-month postintervention follow-up in the Tai Chi group (Li et al. 2004). Musculoskeletal Conditions Evidence to date indicates that Tai Chi training preserves or even increases lower-extremity muscle strength. Wolfson et al. (1996) showed that 6 months of Tai Chi training (following their primary interventions) did not improve lower-extremity muscle strength, compared to an exercise control group. However, their data did indicate that Tai Chi training preserved lowerextremity strength gains developed by the intervention. In a 20-week pilot study, Christou et al. 2003) showed that, compared to those in the control condition, Tai Chi participants significantly improved knee extensor strength and force control among older adults. Tai Chi also appears to be safe and beneficial for patients with rheumatoid arthritis. In a randomized trial among older women with osteoarthritis, Song et al (2003) showed a 12-week Tai Chi program resulted in significant improvements in pain and stiffness in joint s, balance, and abdominal strength, and fewer reported perceived difficulties in physical functioning, compared to those of control subjects. Another randomized trial, Hartman et al (2000) showed that a 12week program significantly improved osteoarthritis symptoms such as fatigue, arthritis selfefficacy, feelings of tension, and satisfaction with general health status. More recent evidence points to the potential of Tai Chi as a weight-bearing exercise for retarding bone loss in older women. In a 12-month randomized trial, Chan et al (2004) tested the hypothesis that Tai Chi may retard bone loss in early postmenopausal women. At the end of the trial, bone mineral density (BMD) measurements revealed a general bone loss in both Tai Chi and control subjects at all measured skeletal sites, but with a slower rate in the Tai Chi group. Although the BMD findings were equivocal, the findings lend some support for the potential of Tai Chi to retard bone loss. Cardiovascular and Respiratory Function Although numerous studies have evaluated the effects of Tai Chi on cardiovascular and respiratory function, no RCTs have been reported that involve older adults. A number of Taiwanbased observational studies have shown improvements in cardiorespiratory function resulting from Tai Chi. For example, among long-term older adults practicing Tai Chi, significantly better cardiorespiratory function has been reported (Lai, Lan, Wong, & Teng, 1995; Lan, Lai, Chen, & Wong, 1998), and improvements were also observed among coronary artery bypass surgery patients deemed to be at low risk during their participation in a Tai Chi exercise program (Lan, Chen, Lai, & Wong, 1999). Hypertension Tai Chi is a low-impact activity with self-paced and fluid movements, making it appropriate as a means to reduce blood pressure in people with hypertension. Two intervention trials compared the effects of Tai Chi and aerobic exercise on blood pressure – a surrogate for hypertension. An earlier study by Channer et al (1996) showed that over 11 sessions of exercise, both Tai Chi and aerobic exercise were associated with reductions in systolic blood pressure; Tai Chi was also associated with reductions in diastolic blood pressure in a sample of patients recovering from acute myocardial infraction. In a different study by Young et al. (1999), physically inactive older women with systolic blood pressure 130-159 mmHg and diastolic blood pressure > 95 mmHg were randomized to a 12-week moderate-intensity aerobic exercise program or a Tai Chi program of light activity. At the end of the intervention, the Tai Chi group decreased 7. 0 mmHg of systolic and 2. 4 mmHg of diastolic blood pressure. No significant differences were observed between the two exercise activities. The authored concluded that programs of moderate intensity aerobic exercise and light exercise may have similar effects on blood pressure in previously sedentary older individuals. Quality of Sleep Self-reported sleep complaints are common among older adults (Neubauer, 1999) and it is estimated that up to 50% of elderly persons complain about their sleep (Alessi, 2000). Li et al. (2003) conducted a six-month intervention trial to examine the impact of a simpler Tai Chi program on improving quality of sleep and reducing daytime sleepiness among older adults reporting moderate sleep complaints. Participants were randomly assigned to a Tai Chi group or an exercise control group. At the end of the study, Tai Chi participants reported significant improvements in several sleep-quality related measures in comparison to the control participants; with reduced sleep latency (by about 18 minutes per night) and daytime sleepiness, and improved sleep duration (by about 48 minutes per night). The study provided preliminary evidence linking the benefits of Tai Chi exercise to improved quality of sleep and reduced daytime sleepiness in older adults. Psychosocial Wellbeing and Confidence Li and his colleagues (2001a,b,c,d, 2002a, 2002b) provided a series of reports examining the extent to which Tai Chi enhanced older adults’ multidimensional psychological well-being and health-related quality of life indicators. In a 6-month randomized controlled trial, healthy older adults were randomly assigned to either a control condition or Tai Chi. Results indicated that Tai Chi participants reported higher levels of health perceptions, life satisfaction, positive affect, and well-being, and lower levels of depression, negative affect, and psychological distress (Li et al. 2001a). Participants also showed higher levels of both domain-specific physical self-esteem (Li et al. , 2002b) and exercise self-efficacy relevant to movement confidence (Li et al. , 2001c). Change in the level of movement self-efficacy was found to be significantly related to change in physical functioning (Li et al. , 2001b). Similar profiles have been reported by other researchers (Kutner, Barnhart, Wolf, McNeely, & Xu 1997) in that Tai Chi practice resulted in improved well-being, increased alertness, relaxation, better mental outlook, achievement, and greater confidence. Practical Implications The previous summary and review makes it clear that Tai Chi provides multiple health and therapeutic benefits for older adults. Thus, some discussion of practical implications appears to be in order. Fall Prevention Falls can result in devastating consequences for older adults. Accumulating evidence to date suggest that Tai Chi may be an effective means of improving deficits in balance and functional limitations, and therefore, may serve as a therapeutic exercise for balance and strength, and consequently, reduce the risk of falling and the rate of falls in older adults. Tai Chi may also be considered as an exercise modality that generates confidence building to counteract fear of falling, a common psychological symptom of falls among community adults. However, Tai Chi does not provide a quick fix for the fall problem. Most research in this area has focused on short-term results. Findings from current RCTs show that, however, a minimum of three months training is required before clinically meaningful reductions in risks of falling can be achieved, suggesting the need for long-term, sustained, and frequent practice, perhaps on a day-to-day basis, to obtain the full benefit. Tai Chi as an Alternative, Therapeutic Exercise Tai Chi has been recommended for treating many chronic conditions. For example, as a lowimpact, low-intensity alternative exercise therapy, Tai Chi has also been proposed as a potential option for the management of osteoarthritis (Lumsden, Baccala & Aartire, 1998). As a fall prevention activity, Tai Chi has emerged as an appropriate stand-alone balance training program for older adults to improve balance and prevent falls (JAGS, 2001). But even though Tai Chi appears to have numerous benefits to participants, it is still too early for physicians to begin prescribing Tai Chi as a remedy for chronic health problems because many of the studies have design limitations (Wang et al. , 2004), making it difficult to generalize results to broader patient populations. In this regard, patients with chronic health problems need to take precautions before beginning a Tai Chi program, because for some people Tai Chi could worsen medical conditions or problems/ symptoms. In some cases, appropriate odifications may be needed to better accommodate patients’ special needs or physical limitations. Program Costs, Logistics, and Protocols One of the most desirable aspects of Tai Chi is its absence of a need for high technology in promoting health. Tai Chi is easily distinguished from highly technical computerized balance training protocols, and may be just as successful in achieving fall reduction or balance improvement objectiv es; certainly, Tai Chi is more practical. Tai Chi is a low-cost exercise regimen because special equipment or facilities are not needed (Lan et al. 2002; Li et al. , 2003). Li et al (2001b) reported that, in a 6-month RCT, the total direct cost was approximately $9000 (an average of $3. 50 per person per session). Others (Wilson & Datta, 2001) have reported that a twice weekly Tai Chi program was cost-saving whether direct benefits alone (hip fracture costs averted) or direct plus indirect benefits were considered, with a total net cost savings of $1274. 43 per person per year. When considering direct cots only, the net cost savings were $8. 04 per participant per year. Lower costs ensure that more community-dwelling older adults have 5 sufficient access to programs, and abundant opportunities to participate, which is likely to have profound public health implications. While costs of learning Tai Chi are potentially low, one should not underestimate the fact that Tai Chi is a complex system of movements that, when performed, requires body awareness, motor coordination, and agility; features that could make Tai Chi less immediately deliverable to community adults (Li et al. 2003). Therefore, even though the benefits of regular Tai Chi exercise are quite clear, the challenge of maximizing the opportunity for older persons remains because certain movements may be beyond the capabilities of some elderly individuals or others with disabilities. Thus, there is a need to modify existing Tai Chi protocols to develop forms that are simple, easy to perform, and enjoyable (Chen, 2002; Li et al. , 2003; Wolf et al. , 1997), and that do not require years of sust ained practice to master. Tai Chi Styles There are several styles of Tai Chi, some of which are historic/traditional and some of which are of more recent origin. The earliest known form can be traced to the Chen style and evolved and progressed into multiple styles or schools. Currently, there are five main schools of Tai Chi (People’s Sports, 1996), each named after the style’s founding family: (a) Chen, (b) Yang, (c) Sun, (d) Wu (Jian Qian), and (e) Wu (He Qin). Each style has a characteristic protocol that differs from other styles in the postures or forms included, the order in which they appear, the pace at which movements are executed, and the level of difficulty. For example, one significant difference between Chen and Yang styles is that Yang style movements are relaxed and evenly paced. By comparison, the Chen style is characterized by alternating slow movements with quick and vigorous movements, including restrained and controlled actions/motions, reflecting its martial origin. Yang Style Tai Chi, which evolved from the Chen school, is probably the most popular Tai Chi style being practiced today (e. g. , Swaim, 1999; Yu & Johnson, 1999). Yang style movements are performed in a relaxed and flowing manner, with the trunk erect as the axis of all movements, making it immediately suitable for elderly, frail, or disabled populations. To date, the Yang style, with its variations, has been used as an therapeutic exercise modality in most medical and behavioral research. Although there are multiple versions of the Yang style (both short and long, covering 24-, 48-, 88-, and 108-Forms) (China National Sports Commission, 1983), the 24-Form, based on the most popular sequences of the Yang Chengfu school (China Sports, 1980; People Sports, 1996), is the most readily adaptable to the lifestyles and living situations of older adult populations. It is also the most accommodating, requiring minimal demands of personal strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, and motor skills for participation. Is Tai Chi Ready for Dissemination? In a 2001 joint communique on the prevention of falls among the elderly, the American Geriatrics Society, the British Geriatrics Society, and the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons suggested that Tai Chi â€Å"†¦is a promising type of exercise, although it requires further evaluation before it can be recommended as the preferred balance training† (JAGS, 2001). Since the publication of this joint communique, one large successful RCTs has been published (Li et al. , 2005) providing supporting evidence documented by Wolf et al. ’s earlier work (1996). As a result of these studies, we should be asking questions about how we can most effectively translate and disseminate the Tai Chi program. With this accumulated evidence, the time is near 6 for Tai Chi to be recommended as a preferred exercise for balance training and be routinely prescribed for older patients at risk for falling following appropriate screening. Future Research Directions Despite the increasing interest in studying the effectiveness of Tai Chi training and the resulting evidence of health benefits, there remain areas that require further research. We highlight a few of these. A Need to Understand the Mechanisms of the Benefits Shown Although findings from Tai Chi intervention studies are important from a public health perspective, they provide little information relative to the underlying mechanisms that may produce such effects. In this regard, little attention has been given considering intervention/treatment mediators or moderators that help identify causal pathways between treatment and outcome, and possible mechanisms through which a treatment might achieve its effects. For example, although Tai Chi has repeatedly been shown to improve balance, possible mechanisms by which Tai Chi improves this outcome, and prevent subsequent falls, remains to be determined. Future studies should target specifically older adults with balance impairments, and consider integrated laboratory and/or clinical measures that may help identify specific mechanisms whereby Tai Chi can remedy balance disorders. A Need to Better Understand Effects to Patients with Chronic Conditions A review by Wang et al. (2004) concluded that there is insufficient information to recommend Tai Chi to patients with chronic conditions. For example, the impact of Tai Chi on several important geriatric syndromes such as frailty, dementia, and sarcopenia are worthy of study or further research. Large clinical trials, involving populations with specific medical conditions are needed before health professionals can recommend Tai Chi exercise as an alternative to the more conventional exercise forms that have been shown to produce health benefits. The potential application of Tai Chi to important geriatric issues yet to be studied include: obesity, osteoporosis, diabetes, neurological disorders (e. g. , Parkinson’s disease; peripheral neuropathy). A Need to Study Long-Term Effects Tai Chi intervention studies are typically conducted with a short-duration (e. g. , 3 months, 6 months). Long-term effects of Tai Chi training (e. g. , 12 months up to 2 or 3 years) are largely undetermined. Therefore, questions such as how long the established effects on clinical endpoints will sustain over a longer period of time remains to be determined. Certain outcomes may take a longer time to show an effect. Reductions in falls are a good example. Other outcomes such as BMD, may require up to one year to demonstrate clinically meaningful change because Tai Chi is a low-impact activity. Also, research from the general exercise literature indicates that people who participate in an exercise program often fall back into their older inactive lifestyle after a program ends (van der Bij, Laurant, & Wensing, 2002). Although anecdotal evidence suggest that participants remained active upon program termination (Li et al. , 2001b; Wolf et al. , 1996), critical issues such as getting people to initiate and maintain the Tai Chi activity over a long-term need to be addressed. A Need to Evaluate Programs That Can Be Disseminated in Broader Community Settings Ultimately, for the results of the research-based evidence to have greater public health impact they must be diffused and made accessible to the community. However, it remains unclear whether the general community can readily implement or adopt these Tai Chi training protocols despite evidence of their tested efficacy. To date, there is no widespread, nationally available Tai Chi-based falls prevention program that is based on the effectiveness of scientifically controlled studies. In this regard, program evaluation research is needed to translate effective interventions into a program that is implementable in community settings. The Oregon Research Institute is currently conducting a project to move effective interventions into community practice. The project has identified randomized controlled studies of scientifically-based effective Tai Chi fall interventions and focuses on issues related to â€Å"reach† (i. e. , proportion of older adults who are willing to participate in a given Tai Chi program initiative), â€Å"uptake† (adoption; i. e. , the proportion of settings and service agencies who are willing to initiate a program), and â€Å"implementation† (i. e. the intervention agents' fidelity to the various elements of a Tai Chi training protocol, including consistency of delivery as intended and the time and cost of the intervention). The intended results of this translation and dissemination project will provide an effective, evidence-based falls prevention package that can be implemented in community settings to improve functional ability and reduce fall prevalence among communit y-dwelling older adults. Summary The extant research evidence provides strong support for what was originally considered â€Å"anecdotal evidence† about the health benefits of Tai Chi for older adults. Overall, Tai Chi has been shown to have physiologic and psychosocial benefits and appears to be safe and effective in promoting balance control and muscular strength, and cardiovascular fitness for older adults. More research is needed, with rigorous scientific methodologies, to fully understand the mechanisms whereby Tai Chi produces these health benefits. From a public health perspective, immediate efforts are needed to translate programs that can be disseminated in local settings that target community healthy older adults. Fuzhong Li, Ph. D. , is a Senior Research Scientist at the Oregon Research Institute, Eugene, OR. References Alessi, C. A. (2000). Sleep disorders. In Beers MH, Berkow R, eds. The Merck Manual of Geriatrics. 3rd edition. NJ: Merck & Co, 459-463. 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Learning Goals and Their Impact on Performance

At the same time, personality and dispositional goal orientation are iintegrated through a hierarchy of goals where personality is associated with higher order goals (values), which affect intrinsic motivation. The link to performance is hypothesized through the impact of goal orientation. Under a performance orientation, individuals are less likely to increase effort when they encounter difficulty because they assume that if they do not possess the ability to solve the situation, an increased effort will do little to help. This lack of effort when facing challenge is likely to depress their performance.On the other hand, under a learning orientation, individuals will experience an adaptive pattern and they are more likely to increase effort when encountering difficulty and this effort is likely to increase performance. Short Description A model evaluates the influence of distal factors, such as culture on individuals? dispositions to adopt either learning or performance goals with p erformance. The paper presents several hypotheses on the influence of cultural dimensions, dispositional goal orientation, and individual performance.Keywords Cultural Values Goal Orientation Organizational Behaviour Human Resources 5 Goals and Performance of Global Firms Personality and Culture: Learning Goals and Their Impact on Performance of Global Firms Much research in organizational behavior has often ignored the impact of national culture on the individual (Boyacingler and Adler, 1991). This is not surprising since national culture’s influence in organizational behavior occurs at such a deep level that people are not usually aware of its influences (Triandis, 1983).For example, even though it is clear that values and goals of societies differ, most theories on work motivation have been made in the US with a US perspective (Boyacingler and Adler, 1991). This may encumber the generalizability of some of these motivation theories to a global environment because, as Hofst ede (1980) affirms, even when some principles in motivation may be almost universal, the way managers implement them depend on individual differences in values and goals.These differences are determined by local conditions (Hofstede, 1980), and can be analyzed through the predominance of specific cultural dimensions. This paper contributes to fill the void of culture in many motivation theories, and considers the influence of cultural dimensions on intrinsic motivation, specifically, how cultural dimensions may influence an individual’s goal orientation. Culture and mid-range theoriesLytle, Brett, Barsness, Tinsley, and Janssens (1995) suggest some guidelines for the study of how culture can affect mid-range theories like goal orientation: The first step includes the development of a functional definition of culture and its dimensions, then the identification of a mid-range theory, in this case goal orientation within intrinsic motivation, and finally, the generation of speci fic hypotheses about why and how those cultural dimensions will influence goal orientation.

Holey Soles Essay

This case analysis will focus on the issues surround the lifestyle product company Holey Soles. Psychologist Ann Rosenberg founded the company in September 2002. She initially operated in her garage and backyard, until she recruited Joyce Groote (now current CEO of Holey Soles) and expanded the company into other parts of North America. Holey Soles focuses on creating innovative footwear made from their trademarked technology SmartCel and SoleTek, which is an injection-molded foam technology. As of July 2007, sales had grown at 300% in each of the last two years and the company was ranked number four in the 2006 Profit magazine ranking of Canada’s Emerging Growth Companies. However as they continue to operate, they find themselves getting pushed back by their number one competitor, Crocs. By mid-2007, Crocs sales were 33 times the sales of Holey Soles. Holey Soles has a revenue target of $40 million by 2009, and to achieve this target, they will need to focus on the issues surrounding their company and hindering its growth. We have decided that the core issue surround the company is how to reach the goal of $40 million. They need to address the possible alternatives of either expanding into other products besides footwear, implementing a more aggressive marketing strategy, changing their 2-year goals completely, or maintaining the status quo. These alternatives will depend on the assessment of the time frame, cost, and current and potential competition. Upon analyzing all situations and alternatives, we have decided that the best solution for Holey Soles would be to expand the company by creating other product lines made form their trademarked technology. Only through this method will they be able to generate enough revenue to meet their $40 million goal. Issues The issues surrounding Holey Soles include the inability to have a high market share due to dominance from Crocs, how to reach the goal of $40 million revenue, and deciding upon expansion. We think the core issue is how to reach the goal of $40 million. Decision Criteria 1.Time frame of implementation: They only have 2 years to make reach their intended goal of $40 million. Considering the high target number, 2 years is a very short time frame, and therefore is an important decision criterion. Sourcing from China to other parts of the world also takes a long time, so it factors in how much product can actually be made in the time frame given. 2.Cost of expansion: To reach a goal of $40 million, an expansion of the company would have to take place. This poses the problem of where capital is going to come from. 3.Current competition: Their number one competitor is Crocs. During the 2-year period to reach a goal of $40 million, Crocs will still be selling at the rate they have been, and may also be working towards goals of expansion. 4.Threat of potential competition: In the 2 year time frame given, what’s to say that new competitors will not enter the market? As the clog fad continues, more companies are producing similar products as Holey Soles . Even though most of them aside from Crocs have a poorer design with lower quality materials, the possibility of a company suddenly entering with a whole new technology is always possible. Alternatives & Assessments 1.Expand by increasing a more diverse range of products sold. By relying on selling the clogs alone, they will never be able to reach their goal of $40 million, nor be able to overtake Crocs since Crocs has taken so much more of the market share already. With their trademarked foam-injection technologies SmartCel and SoleTek, they should put those towards creating newer and more innovative lifestyle products aside from footwear. They already started with the beach bag, so it proves that it is possible to create other products. They already have an advantage due to their company being defined as products that are â€Å"lifestyle† centered, rather than simply a â€Å"footwear manufacturer†.

Comparing domestic and internation news reports Essay

Comparing domestic and internation news reports - Essay Example A recent survey of the National Center for Health Statistics shows that as of year 2002, there is "an estimated 757,000 pregnancies among teenagers ages 15 to 19 years although it is nine percent fewer than in 2000 and about one-fourth fewer than the peak number estimated for 1990 which is 1,017,000" (Ventura, Abma, Mosher, & Henshaw, 2007). While a decline in statistics of teenage pregnancy has been noted, the number is still high and should not be taken for granted. How are parents, the academe, and the teenagers deal with it And, how is it presented to the public through the news published in various newspapers To be able to determine the answer to these questions, I consulted San Diego State University's Online Library for two news articles on teenage pregnancy written in publications in the United States and another two from Asian newspapers. An article by Kim Vo on San Jose Mercury News carries this headline: "District introduces new sex education program" (2005). Vo's news story tackles the importance of a newer and innovative approach on teaching sex education even towards the elementary pupils. The news has been written in a factual yet sensitive manner, taking into consideration the views of the parents, the students, the teenage mothers, and the academe. This was published on 2005. Two years later, The Houston Chronicle published a more straightforward news article on teenage pregnancy with a headline: "Baytown teens plan pregnancy forum" ("Baytown Teens," 2007). Contrary to San Jose Mercury News' story, the statistics and background of teenage pregnancy is no longer included in the recent article. It shows that the youth are already active in taking part to arrest the problem with unwanted pregnancies during puberty. The two articles mentioned are both published in the United States. Not much difference has been noted on the grammatical structure of the headlines; however, the second story could have been more compelling if the writer included some statistics on teenage pregnancy incidence in the area. As a reader, I "felt" the article on San Jose Mercury News more than the one published by The Houston Chronicle, because of the manner in which the first article is presented. Meanwhile, in Asia, which is known to be conservative, teenage pregnancies have also ballooned. Experts have openly discussed ways to salvage the youth from this alarming situation. In Taiwan, the Central News Agency - Taiwan reports on the very high incidence of teenage pregnancy in the area. However, instead of directly stating that Taiwan's teenagers have gotten pregnant more often than Japanese or a South Korean girl had, journalist Lilian Wu writes about the proposed solution to the problem. The article has this headline: "Sex education needed to address teenage pregnancy: Expert" (Wu, 2007). The news also opens with a lead on the sex education expert's view on the reason of high incidence of

THE COMPARISON OF CONTRAST MEAD AND BOURDIEU THEORIES Essay

THE COMPARISON OF CONTRAST MEAD AND BOURDIEU THEORIES - Essay Example Perceiving a house is same as to perceive shelter. That is why it is concluded that perception is the action plans that individual takes (Baldwin, 90-91). Mead’s society based on an open society of open selves, (Herbert, pp 6). His theories are synthesis of German idealism which states that, the self’s â€Å"perception and semantics’† and "a common practice of various subjects" (Baldwin, 203-205) found particularly in social brushes., Mead’s self states to be significantly knitted within a sociological presence: For Mead, existence in community lies before individual awareness. Mead focused that all human beings including men and women start their apprehension of the social world through "play" and "game". "Play" lies prior in the childs development and growth (Baldwin, pp. 23-31). The self-development is dependent on learning in order to capture the role of other. Therefore, a child can play different actions he notices in "adult" society, and performs them out to take an understanding of the various social roles. Moreover, it is simply the matter that, what others do. Every step is a learning step that starts from imitation through play acting world of children. Whereas, Pierre Bourdie was a famous French sociologist born on first august 1930.his work provide the framework for social and symbolic violence that enables the dynamics to reveal the human power connections in our social life. However, he argued that individuals either schools or writers should bring their expertise to bear responsibly on political and social issues. He drew different methods from a broad range of various disciplines, specially philosophy anthropology and sociology. One of his famous books is â€Å"Distinction† describes the space of social lifestyle and space of social positions or a Social Critique of the assessment of Taste. Moreover, Bourdie describes the scholastic point of view, means things of logic and logic of things. Moreover, he loved intellectual combat,

Black holes Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Black holes - Essay Example Photons flew out across of the universe, energized to the limit found in nature and billions of years later, the space stations have detected them above our space. Our ability is to discover the mysteries through our present new age high energy astronomy. The universe is full of amazing astronomical and scientific features, but according to scientists and researchers up till now Black holes are considered as one of the most puzzling phenomena in the universe. The definition of a black hole is enough to get one’s attention as a black hole is a celestial body of extremely intense gravity from which nothing, not even light, can escape (Wald, 1984). The significance of black holes in the cosmos is obvious and same they have the importance to gravitational physics. The theory of presence of the black holes in the universe is our real test that how much we understand the concept of strong gravitational fields. This paper mainly deals with this topic i.e. â€Å"the strong gravitational singularity† of black holes. Primarily â€Å"a quantitative approach† is applied to involve the use of library sources, journals and â€Å"online search† as well. The facts about the topic (black hole) are probable emergent themes based on literature reviews and personal research. This document is developed in three segments. It starts with the brief introduction of black holes and their basic characteristics and particularly the gravitational singularity which is the most distinguished property they possess. This part is based on the previous literature review. The preceding segment deals critical analysis regarding the gravita tional singularity of black holes. In the last segment, a conclusion is made based upon literature review and critical analysis. A black hole is a hypothetical cosmic body of extremely intense gravity from which nothing, not even light, can escape (Wald, 1984). The borderline of this region where nobody can escape, is called

Letter of Complaint Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Letter of Complaint - Essay Example Despite the urgency of the situation, I could not move the car. I have to confess that it was embarrassing, and I did not anticipate this to happen to me while driving such a well-established car brand. I was also extremely disappointed since none of the cars I have driven over the last years has given me this kind of problem. We called, in a tow truck, to help us move the car to the Auto-world Frontier service station. Our conversation with the dealership’s advisor went well enough as she accepted that the company had, indeed, neglected to carry out ground clearance and that this model was meant for German roads. I left the car there for the replacement of the oil chamber. The insurance company will cover this bill. I was informed to pick the car up after two days. As I returned to pick up the car, the advisor informed me that while the chamber’s replacement had gone off smoothly, the oil was still leaking when the engine was started. I was asked to call at two PM since the mechanics were still on the car. When I called, his phone was off. The landline number went through, only to be informed that the advisor was on a two-week leave and that I should get in touch with a Mr. Brandon. Brandon, for his part, told me that he would call me back after twenty minutes with the status on my car. When he did, he informed me that my car was badly damaged and that the engine required repair. The insurance company, apparently, would not cover the cost for repairs. No one between the insurance company and the service centre seems willing to take responsibility for my car’s damage. I would like to ascertain that the fault lies directly with VW and its ground clearance design for the model of my car. It is also worth noting that my car was not running when my misfortune occurred, and thus, the incident might not have been caused by an engine trouble before the incident. I would

Should the Death Penalty be Abolished Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Should the Death Penalty be Abolished - Essay Example Of late, therefore, advocates of the death penalty are relying on economic arguments to buttress their position that the death penalty is an appropriate and valid punishment by focusing mainly on the issue of deterrence. As the New York Times put it: â€Å"Does Death Penalty Save Lives?† (Liptak, 2007). Likewise, anti-death advocates are steering clear of emotive language and using hard statistics as well but to demonstrate non-deterrence, racial bias, judicial fallibility and the like. Analyzing the two competing positions on the death penalty, this paper’s thesis is that those arguing for capital punishment uses economics as lens of analysis and emphasises deterrence rather than retribution, and those who argue against capital punishment use an economic, legal and sociological frame. Death Penalty Advocates favour economics-based arguments In the fairly recent work of Dezhbakhsh, Rubin and Shepherd, econometrics was used to determine the deterrent effect of the death penalty and it was found that â€Å"the legal change allowing executions beginning in 1977 has been associated with significant reductions in homicide† (page 373). ... d economist, Naci Mocan, who admitted being â€Å"personally opposed† to the death penalty (Liptak, 2007) had found that â€Å"each additional execution decreases homicides by about five, and each additional commutation increases homicides by the same amount, while an additional removal from death row generates one additional murder.† (Mocan and Gittings 453). Death Penalty Opponents use a combination of economics and sociological arguments There is, however, no shortage of critics to the argument that death penalty deters crimes, specifically homicide, and therefore saves lives. According to a paper written by Jeffrey Fagan from the Columbia Law School – Most of the studies fail to account for incarceration rates or life sentences, factors that may drive down crime rates via deterrence or incapacitation; one study that does so finds no effects of execution and a significant effect of prison conditions on crime rates. Another report shows incarceration effects th at dwarf the deterrent effects of execution. Most fail to account for complex social factors such as drug epidemics that are reliable predictors of fluctuations in the murder rate over time. The studies don't look separately at the subset of murders that are eligible for the death penalty, instead lumping all homicides together. Those who are against the death penalty have also provided evidence demonstrating that racial bias has played a big role in execution sentences, with scholars like Zeisel for example demonstrating that the death penalty was administered unequally, discriminating against black offenders and against murderers of white victims. (456). Barry Scheck, who is the co-founder and co-director of the Innocence Project, notes the case of Claude Jones, who could have been saved from the death row

Human relationship Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Human relationship - Essay Example Collaboration should be viewed as an opportunity to build bridges rather than working against one another. Trust and respect are vital to positive collaboration because these values remove any doubts or fears one side may have about the other. While collaboration works well between differing parties, it can also be highly successful within a single team. Instead of discussing individual needs, a greater focus needs to be on the team as a whole. Flexibility is absolutely necessary to make this happen because it is usually not possible for everyone to get what they want, but that does not mean that they have to feel disappointed. One example of collaboration is when two departments need to work together on a construction plan for a new property. All of the wants and needs should be included in the plans, but if there are any conflicts then they should be resolved through collaboration. It may be that one department has to give something up but can also be accommodated in another area to make up for it. Teamwork occurs when a group of individuals are committed to achieving a goal or objective for the betterment of the team as a whole. Unlike collaboration, which often involves two conflicting parties, teamwork is much more suitable to a group environment where everyone is hopefully on the same page. One thing that makes teamwork distinctive is that each group member has a role and responsibility to carry out. One advantage of teamwork over individual work is that with groupthink it is possible to come up with more robust and complex solutions to problems. Teamwork requires each group member to buy-in to the ideals of the team and develop a common understanding. Rules and regulations do not need to be defined in a formal manner because each member should know the boundaries. All successful teams have at least one person in a leadership role, whether that is well-defined or loose. Above all, the team leader is expected to

Logistics Transportation Cost Analysis Outline Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Logistics Transportation Cost Analysis - Outline Example The successful completion of the proposed study is expected to come with several significant advantages. Whereas some of these benefit the field of logistics literature, others will be useful for professional logistics practice. As far as literature is concerned, it is expected that the study will fill most gaps that exist in the academia about logistics transportation cost analysis. By so doing, ongoing and future researchers would have very strong conceptual basis on which they will establish their own research. Very often, conducting research with limited resources for conceptual framework makes the research lack credibility because the researchers have to rely on personal intuition and reasoning instead of fact backed evidence. But where there are gaps in literature, researchers have very limited options than choosing such unproductive means. By concluding this study therefore, most gaps relating to the relationship between transportation cost and transportation tools, as well as the importance of scientific design transport network shall be put in context. From a more practical context, this study shall be conducted through the use of primary data collection, which means that there will be realistic interventions about how existing issues of logistics cost can be addressed within organisations. Waters (2003) lamented of the high degree of cost associated with logistics transportation, which makes companies fail on realising the real advantages that should come with SCM.

The Evolution of Communication in the Technology-Focused World Essay

The Evolution of Communication in the Technology-Focused World - Essay Example Current issues are discussed, such as how ‘sexting’ represents a dilemma for public officials, and why it’s important to select complex, hard-to-guess passwords for important online accounts. In all, the paper presents a concise look at a few of the many areas affected by the rapid adoption of technology as a means of communication, and what it will ultimately mean for the duties performed by public officials. Keywords: communication, technology, criminal justice, public sector The Evolution of Communication as the World Becomes More Technology-Focused ‘Communication,’ as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary, is â€Å"the successful conveying or sharing of ideas and feelings.† The methods by which such conveyances are made have been widely divergent through time. Whereas in the distant past, the dominant mode of communication might have entailed making gestures combined with short words or phrases to make one’s intentions known, the advent of the modern technological era has spawned an entirely new set of paradigms. The rapid rise in the speed and breadth of global communications enabled by technology has given rise to a number of descriptive labels. Industry expert Manuel Castells, a professor and Wallis Annenberg Chair in Communication Technology and Society at the University of Southern California, has dubbed the era as, ‘the network society’ (Castells, 2010). He postulates, â€Å"I contend that around the end of the second millennium of the common era a number of major social, technological, economic and cultural came together to give rise to a new form of society† (p. xvii). The referred to paradigm shift in communication is cited by Castells as creating a â€Å"shift from traditional mass media to a system of horizontal communication networks organized around the Internet and wireless communication† (p. xviii). Adopting a cautionary tone, he notes that a fundamental cultural tra nsformation has taken place, based on digital information processing, that has engendered a â€Å"generational divide† between persons born before 1969, which he marks as the ‘Internet Age’ and those thereafter. While wholesale changes to longstanding global societal structures have doubtlessly created a sense of disorientation among some, the ability to instantly communicate has brought about many improvements worldwide. In the critical area of health care, communication technology has enabled unprecedented levels of access to information on diseases and treatments, which are instantly accessible over Internet-based protocols. Innovations such as Web-based medical collaborations, wherein practitioners in different geographical locations can share data from a single clinical record, have become a vital part of the treatment process (Sands, 2008). Advances in communication technology have completely reorganized the traditional business model. Whereas once only the larger corporate structures had the wherewithal to distribute goods and services worldwide, global access is now easily accessible to even small proprietors.

Immanuel Kant Essay Example for Free

Immanuel Kant Essay The following is taken from Immanuel Kant’s The Metaphysics of Morals (Part II, â€Å"The Science of Right†), translated by W. Hastie with emendations and paragraph numbers added by Jeremy Anderson. The complete text is available free online here. In this excerpt, Kant first explains what crime is and the different sorts of crimes (paragraph 1), which is not very important for our purposes. He then presents his view that punishment is justified by the criminals having committed a crime (par. 2). This is to be contrasted with other theories of punishment such as the Utilitarian theory, according to which punishment is justified by the good it brings to society. Kant rejects the Utilitarian theory for two reasons. First, he believes it treats criminals as mere means to others good; Kant’s Categorical Imperative forbids this. Second, the Utilitarian theory could, possibly, justify punishing an innocent person because of the good it might bring to society. To Kant, this sort of injustice is absolutely intolerable. Having explained why we punish people Kant goes on to discuss how and how much to punish criminals (par. 3-8). Here he asserts that the hurt done to the criminal should equal the hurt the criminal did to others, both in amount and in kind (in class we are calling this the Equal Punishment version of the lex talionis). The rest of the piece mostly explains what he means by this, with particular emphasis on the need for the death penalty. In paragraphs 8 and 10 Kant considers some interesting exceptions to the rule that murderers must be executed. Okay, so Kant believed that punishment should always be in response to a crime punishing someone to protect society or to deter others is immoral. Kant goes on to say that it is also immoral for a person to commit a crime, and not be punished. In other words, every crime merits a punishment; it is Kants form of equality. Kant refers to this as jus talionis, which is loosely translates as the right of retaliation. However, Kant was opposed to punishing people if it took away their humanity. In other words, if a person tortures people, that person should not be punished by torture, because doing so would be dehumanizing OURSELVES. In other words, it would be stooping to the level of the torturer. Kant did believe in Capital Punishment in fact, he insisted on it. He states in his book, Metaphysics on Morals, that according to Jus Talionis, murderers MUST die there is no earthly punishment other than death that can balance out a murder, and thus preserve Jus Talionis, the balance between crime and punishment. It is like a scale the side of justice must balance the side of injustice. An Exposition of Kant’s, Arendt’s, and Mill’s Moral Philosophy Immanuel Kant adheres to Deontological ethics. His theory offers a view of morality based on the principle of good will and duty. According to him, people can perform good actions solely by good intentions without any considerations to consequences. In addition, one must follow the laws and the categorical imperative in order to act in accordance with and from duty. Several other philosophers such as Hannah Arendt discuss Kant’s moral philosophy. In her case study: â€Å"The Accused and Duties of a Law-Abiding Citizen†, Arendt examines how Adolf Eichmann’s actions conformed to Kant’s moral precepts but also how they ran of afoul to his conception of duty. In contrast, John Stuart Mill adopts a teleological view of moral philosophy. He exposes his view of consequentialism and utilitarianism to argue that an action is morally right only to the extent that it maximizes the aggregate happiness of all parties involved regardless of the motive. In the present paper, I will expose Kant’s moral precepts and the importance of duty in his Deontological principles. Then, I will evaluate Arendt’s report on Adolf Eichmann to analyze the ways in which his actions were in accordance to or against Kant’s moral philosophy. I will conclude my discussion with an evaluation of Mill’s approach to morality in order to examine the differences between his teleological philosophy and Kant’s ethical principles. Kant’s moral philosophy is based on the categorical imperative (CI), good will, and duty. According to the CI, it is an absolute necessity, a command that humans should accord with universalizable maxims to treat people as ends in themselves and exercise their will without any concerns about the consequences or conditions of their actions. This concept can also be expressed in systematic terms by the two following formulations.

Animal Rights For Farm Animals Sociology Essay

Animal Rights For Farm Animals Sociology Essay The paucity of legal scholarship and teaching in the area of animals and the law is puzzling, particularly given the general interest in, and intense debate about, the treatment of animals by humans over the last 30 years. The lack of interest in Australia is ironic, as it was the work of the Australian philosopher Peter Singer, in the highly influential book Animal Liberation, which can be said to have reinvigorated much of the modern debate about the status of animals.  [1]  By contrast with the Australian uninterest, countries such as Sweden, the United Kingdom, Finland, Switzerland and the Netherlands have moved to ban the cruel practice of keeping pregnant sows in sow stalls, Australias most recent Model Pig Code provided for a minor increase in stall size and a generous 10 year phase in period for a 6 week limit on the use of sow stalls. Moreover, the deplorable practice of keeping hens in battery cages continues to be legal in all Australian jurisdictions while the EU has banned the use of all battery cages by January 2012. Further to this, the United States legal academy has been actively exploring legal issues relating to animals for a number of years. The Lewis and Clark Law School, in Portland, Oregon, has established the National Center for Animal Law and publishes an annual journal, Animal Law.  [2]  Approximately 40 law schools in the United States offer courses on animals and the law.  [3]  The legal profession in the United States has been no less active. A large number of State Bar Associations have established animal law sections or committees. Activist attorneys established the independent Animal Legal Defense Fund (ALDF) in 1981. The ALDF not only provides free legal advice and assistance to prosecutors in cruelty cases, but also maintains a national database of cruelty cases, and provides support for lawsuits that test the boundaries of animal law.  [4]  Certainly, Australias poor animal welfare standards in comparison are a fundamental flaw of Australian animal protection laws. Nevertheless, even if the State and Territory Governments decide to implement ambitious welfare standards, as the legislation stands, these standards would go substantially unenforced. As such, this essay attempts to explore the current legal system governing our animals and in the process it will bring to light the deficiencies that currently exist. The focus of which will be on the treatment of factory farmed animals and how Australia continues to lag behind the rest of the world in developing a legal system that effectively shuts out animal cruelty. The notion of animal law is one that is highly complex yet ironically extremely underdeveloped. This in turn has led to mass confusion about the treatment of animals by various bodies. According to voiceless, over the last 30 years, there has been a dramatic increase in our understanding of animal intelligence and behaviour and a broad acceptance that animals are sentient beings that have a right to live free of suffering. This has led to the recognition that the existing legal system has failed to provide animals with access to justice.  Ã‚  To address this failure, two streams of law have been developed that aim to use legal mechanisms to improve the lives of animals.  [5]   1. Animal welfare laws may be defined as those laws that seek to promote the interests of animals, within a legal framework that characterises them as property. In essence, animal welfare law sanctions exploitation of animals but seeks to define acceptable limits to that exploitation by prohibiting unnecessary pain and suffering.  [6]   Some examples of activities considered necessary under Australias current animal welfare laws include:  [7]   Confining millions of pigs, chickens and other farm animals in concrete and steel sheds (modern factory farms) with no access to the outdoors, little to no access to bedding material and  little to no meaningful contact with their young; Denying anaesthetic during painful procedures such as tail docking, castration and teeth clipping; and Using a range of methods from baits and traps to guns and bows and arrows (in some states) to kill millions of wild animals defined as feral or game every year. It is under this area of law that Australia is clearly lacking in its commitment to the protection of animal welfare. Ultimately, such necessary activities are permitted on the basis of efficiency and economics. This is further reinforced by Francione who argues that most animal welfare legislation is based on an understanding of animals as commodities (evidenced by the significant exemptions and qualifications typical of such laws, including the use of animals for food and for scientific research).  [8]  However, the imposition of cruelty for economic reasons alone is unjustified and essentially this needs to be reformed. For Singer, a utilitarian, the qualified protection provided by animal welfare legislation reflects a failure to give equal consideration to the interests of animals. In turn, this failure reflects speciesism an irrational, discriminatory and morally unjustifiable preference for the interests of humans over animals.  [9]   Public consideration of the issue of cruelty to animals tends to focus on the treatment of companion animals and animals used in research. Wolfson and Sullivan argue that this focus also underpins law-making and legal scholarship.  [10]  Yet, they point out, it is farmed animals that account for almost all animals killed by humans (in the order of 98 in every 100 killed).  [11]  This is once again a clear failure in the development of an effective body of law. The protection of animal welfare and rights is clearly a mirage of hope. This is primarily based on the notion that anti-cruelty legislation has been called upon because of the impact that humans are having on farmed animals, yet our legal bodies continue to ignore such blatant actions and focus on an area of law that appeases society without actually effectively addressing the issue at hand. Ultimately, as will be discussed later, this creates a false sense of security amongst humans that our governments are effectivel y targeting animal welfare rights. In the United States these animals are invisible to the law. At federal level, farmed animals are exempted from anti-cruelty legislation.  [12]  States are also increasingly incorporating customary farming exemptions. If industry participants can establish that particular treatment of a type of animal is commonplace and accepted industry practice, no criminal liability can arise based on that treatment, regardless of how cruel the treatment might actually be. The end result is a profit-driven industry, with a proven record of sustained infliction of cruelty on animals, which is largely self-regulated on issues of animal welfare.  [13]  Further to this, legislation in Australia exempts farming from cruelty offences, and although most jurisdictions have adopted codes of conduct for the treatment of farmed animals, these are not always compulsory, and are not subject to wide public scrutiny. Thus, the issue of profit making industries again go es to the core of animal welfare rights. The failure to understand animal welfare rights over economic progression will inevitably ensure that this remains a perpetual problem. Until society puts animal welfare ahead of profits then Australia will remain in a contained cyclical downfall with respect to the protection of animals. It is at this point where the implementation of animal rights law may help to aid the development of animal protection in the future. 2. Animal rights law may be defined as an area of law which seeks to question animals well-entrenched status as property, with a view to securing fundamental rights for (at least some) animals.  [14]  The quest for animal rights is not a pursuit for the same rights that humans should have. Essentially, animal rights lawyers argue that animals should not be treated by the law as mere things. This area of the law is based on the assumption that unless animals have rights, they will continue to be treated by society as resources to satisfy human wants and needs.  [15]   Thus it is the development of this area of law that is essential to the proper development of animal welfare laws. The development of these two areas ultimately complements one another with the hope of eradicating the issues that arise under the first type of legal system. That is, the protection of animals from unnecessary pain and suffering only. Singer may regard animal welfare legislation as a positive development, but would argue that to be effective such legislation needs to consider the interests of animals and humans equally. It is here where animal rights law begins to reflect such an ideological stance, and as already discussed, this is a major step in the development of an effective body of law that deals with animals and humans. Whilst the need for legal advocates is an urgent one, animal law, as already discussed is a relatively new body of law that is still in its infant stages of development. In the United States, animal law has been developing at an increasing rate over the last thirty years. However in Australia, there are still only a handful of advocates (committees, universities and organisations) actively debating these issues. A 2006 survey conducted in connection with the Federal Governments Australian Animal Welfare Strategy found that participants had a shallow understanding of animal welfare issues and that there appeared to be assumptions by the general public about animal welfare and the existence and enforcement of legislation to protect animals from mistreatment.  [16]  Thus, this clear lack of transparency and education with respect to the law inevitably inhibits the ability of animal law to grow as a serious body of law. In recent years, increased scrutiny and criticism of intensive factory farms have changed the way that animal industries market their products. No more hiding beneath a veil of secrecy hoping that issues such as sow stalls, battery cages and meat chicken growing and processing wont be discussed and debated. The social justice movement of animal protection is rapidly picking up momentum and animal industries are now, more than ever, being called upon to justify or change their practices. However despite this change in perception, it is clear that Australia is still falling behind in the protection of intensively farmed animals. This can primarily be linked backed to the argument that animals can never gain adequate protection under the law without a fundamental reappraisal of their legal status as property. For example, according to the American lawyer Gary Francione, because their interests are evaluated against this status as property, the outcome is almost certain: people win and a nimals lose.  [17]  He takes the view that, although an animal treatment by its owner may ostensibly be limited by anticruelty laws, property rights are paramount in determining the ambit of protection accorded to animals by law.  [18]  If we say that an animal is property, he declares, we mean that the animal is to be treated under the law primarily as a means to human ends, and not as an end in herself.  [19]  Thus, to expand legal protection and remedy available to factory farmed animals, a uniform and settled approach on standing must be established upon the principle that animals are not merely a means to human ends but have by virtue of themselves, basic moral rights.  [20]  Ultimately, the treatment of animals as property inhibits the ability of the law to protect their rights as it would be extremely unlikely that standing can be established. As Cassuto argues, animals lack legal protections because they are commodified property whose worth emanates from thei r market value.  [21]  In other words, systematic abuse arises is sanctioned in the discourse of property because such animals are not considered as individual, sentient beings but a mere commodity.  [22]  Granting standing to a plaintiff to sue to enforce an animal welfare statue therefore can serve to interfere in another individuals property right. The conflict of interest that arises is therefore an inherent problem within this body of law. The continuation of animals being associated as mere commodities will essentially inhibit the development of animal rights and ultimately will ensure Australia remains behind the rest of the world. The notion that factory farmed animals are mere commodities with no measurable rights is made apparent especially in our NSW legislation. The legislative framework governing the lives of animals on factory farms is indicative of the dichotomy drawn between farm animals on the one hand and companion animals or endangered species on the other. As already pointed out by Wolfson, public consideration of the issue of cruelty to animals tends to focus on the treatment of companion animals and animals used in research. This is made no more apparent than in our legislation. Firstly, NSW implemented the Companion Animals Act 1998 (NSW).  [23]  The Companion Animals Act covers the responsibilities and rights of the owners of companion animals, such as cats and dogs. The aim of the legislation is to protect the rights of animals and their owners in balance with the rights and needs of others in the community. Thus, where NSW attempts to convey to the public that it is serious about animal r ights, it appears that this is only with respect to companion animals. It is an unfortunate occurrence as it has created a sense of security amongst the public that our state is serious about animal protection, yet the truth of the matter is that we are neglecting the primary group of animals that are in need the most. In NSW, the key piece of legislation is the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1979 (POCTAA).  [24]  One would assume that this may provide some protection to farmed animals. However, this is clearly not the case as Peter Sankoff suggests An examination of POCTAA as a stand-alone document further supports the suggestion that the animals best protected by NSW animal welfare law are animals the community has the most immediate and intimate relationship with.  [25]  Provisions in the Act establish stringent definitions of cruelty contained in sections 4(2) and 5 in which the following is an act of cruelty whereby an animal is unreasonably, unnecessarily or unju stifiably beaten, kicked, killed, wounded, pinioned, mutilated, maimed, abused, tormented, tortured, terrified or infuriated, over-loaded, over-worked, over-driven, over-ridden or over-used, exposed to excessive heat or excessive cold, or inflicted with pain. In section 4 of the POCTA Act, animals used for the production of food and industry are defined as stock animals comprising cattle, horses, sheep, goats, deer, pigs, and poultry. By virtue of this definition they are exempt from numerous acts that would come under the definition of cruelty if these acts were committed against an animal not defined as a stock animal.  [26]  Such exemptions are facilitated by the establishment of a legal defense to an alleged cruel practice through section 24 of the POCTA Act whereby a person is not guilty of the offence if the court is satisfied that the act or omission in respect of which the proceedings are being taken was done to a stock animal in the course of various industry practices.   [27]  Such practices sustaining the defense include ear tagging or branding and all acts if an animal is less than two to six months of age depending on the species of animals. Stock animals are also exempted from section 9 of the POCTA Act which stipulates that confined animals are to be exercised. Under 34A the POCTA Act, Industry codes of Practice can be adopted as guidelines, relating to the welfare of farm animals meaning that it is the Industries themselves regulating animal welfare in factory farms. This essentially creates a clear conflict of interest because rather than establish independent bodies or legislative frameworks, removed from subjective bias such as monetary concerns it appears that the government is content with self regulation that is clearly ineffective. Further to this, an examination of the other regulatory instruments that work alongside POCTAA further support the suggestion that being a high visibility animal is legislatively beneficial. Exhibited a nimals, the highest visibility animals, are granted the full range of protections available under POCTAA, and then they have their own piece of additional legislation in the form of the Exhibited Animals Protection Act 1986 (NSW).  [28]  The protections available to animals in circuses, zoos, and those used in theatre and film, are strong and comprehensive. The reason EAPA was created was due to the public outcry over the poor conditions being provided for animals exhibited in some circuses and fauna parks.  [29]  This demonstrates how important visibility is to good legal protections, and essentially this highlights the chronic issue plaguing farmed animals as they are completely removed from the spotlight. Thus it is clear this is an extremely underdeveloped area of law, as Wolfson identifies, it is farmed animals that account for almost all animals killed by humans (in the order of 98 in every 100 killed).  [30]  Thus, how can Australia possibly consider itself at the forefront of animal welfare rights, when the core group of animals remains unprotected by any form of solid legislation? Essentially, Australia is still lagging behind significantly and this will be further highlighted by a comparative analysis below of the developments taking place in the United States and Europe. The underdevelopment of our legal system with respect to animals is not confined to NSW only. If one were to take an analytical view of our Victorian legislation for instance, the public would indeed see that this is a nationwide issue. Section 6(1) of the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act 1986 Victoria, and its state and territory equivalents, exclude production animals (the vast majority of animals in Australia) from the legislations protection. If production industries follow a code of practice for their particular animal, they are exempted from prosecution for cruelty, despite the fact the codes are barely enforced, or allow very cruel practices. However, as discussed above, such codes of practice are clearly a form of appeasement rather than a serious attempt at protecting our animals. As a result, millions of factory-farmed animals daily endure conditions that would be illegal if they involved a companion animal such as a cat or dog. As Katrina Sharman, corporate counsel for animal advocacy group Voiceless says: Most never see the light of day, feel the earth beneath their feet, walk freely, stretch their wings or limbs, forage for food or engage in normal socialisation.  [31]  Even the limited legislative protection that Australia offers animals is inadequately enforced. Under section 24 of the act, charges may be laid by a member of the police force, a public servant in the Department of Primary Industries, municipal council officer or RSPCA officer.  [32]  But in reality, all bodies are under-resourced, meaning most breaches of the law are not detected or investigated, let alone prosecuted, even if there is genuine will to do so.  [33]  And even if someone is convicted, penalties are woeful. Under section 10 of the act, for example, the maximum penalty for aggravated cruelty is 12 months jail. In this regard, greater deterrence through the form of a more imposing legislative framework is crucial to ensure that industries and individuals refrain from continuing such acts. Ultimately, education has been an insufficient tool to protect our animals and from an industry perspective, unless penalties become harsher, they are going to continue to practice in a way that is focused on efficiency alone and not in a way that would be in the animals interest. According to a publication issued by the Australian Chicken Meat Federation Inc: Concern for bird welfare is backed by Government and Industry Standards which ensure birds are kept comfortable and treated humanely.  [34]  Similarly, Australian Pork Limiteds website tells us that: Australian consumers can have every confidence in the animal welfare standards applied by Australian pork producers [because] our farmers all abide by the standards as set out in the Model Code.  [35]  Despite such positive sentiments, the issue at hand here is that most farm animals fall largely outside the protective reach of animal welfare legislation. They are classified in law as property or commodities as discussed above. The Codes mirror this approach, which has drastic ramifications for the way farm animals are treated. For example, the Codes permit permanent indoor confinement of female pigs, layer hens and meat chickens in circumstances which severely limit their ability to carry out their normal behaviours. They also provide for certain Management Practices or Elective Husbandry Procedures to be performed on farm animals. The Pig Code  [36]  sanctions the docking of piglets tails, while the Poultry Code  [37]  provides for layer hens to be subjected to appropriate beak trimming. These procedures are both permitted to be carried out without pain relief, notwithstanding the fact that scientific research points to the fact that they are likely to cause acute and chronic pain.  [38]  Most animals in factory farms live a life of confinement. They spend their time crammed into cages, sheds or feedlots and they never see the sun. Take, for example, the breeding pigs (sows), numbering about 300,000.  [39]  These intelligent, emotionally complex beings spend the bulk of their reproductive lives in stalls so small they cannot turn around.  [40]  The sole purpose of their existence, as determined by us, is to produce the five million pigs slaughtered every y ear to fill the mouths of our pork, ham and bacon lovers.  [41]  This industry is so fixated on profits and meeting the demands of society that from an economic perspective no other form of treatment is feasible. Thus, it is clear that the industry has taken advantage of the laxity of the legislative framework and incorporated this into its own practice codes and industry standards. Through this, it is clear that Australia desperately needs to change to ensure that it ceases to lag behind the rest of the world and become a leader at the forefront of animal welfare. As argued, Australia is clearly lagging behind in the development of animal law, and the primary area is that of factory farmed animals. Despite Australian Pork Limited Claiming that Australian pig farmers are leading the way in making positive changes in the way pigs are raised, such claims are largely a falsity. As can be seen from the discussion above, in Australia, there are State and Territory animal welfare laws that are intended to protect animals but in reality, the fundamental interests of most farm animals, including pigs, are not protected in law. As already discussed, National Model Codes of Practice apply in addition to some animal welfare laws; however, these Codes also fail to provide true protection. To make matters worse, they are often used to justify many cruel factory farming practices. The current Model Code of Practice for the Welfare of Animals- Pigs (revised) (2006) (the Revised Code)  is no exception. Continuing on from the above discussion, some of the cru el practices it permits are: Pregnant sows may be confined for the duration of their 16 week pregnancy in individual sow stalls, measuring no more than 0.6 x 2.2m. These stalls, which have been associated with physical disorders, chronic stress and depression, are so small that female pigs cannot even turn around.  [42]   From about 2017: The maximum time for holding pregnant pigs in sow stalls will reduce to 6 weeks. This is two weeks more than the minimum standard being introduced by the European Union and New Zealand. Sow stalls are already banned  in the United Kingdom, Sweden, Switzerland, The Netherlands and Finland. They are also banned in Florida and are being phased out in Arizona, California, Colorado, Maine, Michigan and Oregon in the United States. Two of the largest pork producers in the US and Canada also recently announced their plans to phase out sow stalls.  Ã‚  [43]   Heavily pregnant and nursing sows will be confined for up to 6 weeks of each reproductive cycle in farrowing crates, before their young are prematurely weaned. These crates, which measure 0.5 x 2.2m, are even smaller than sow stalls.  [44]   Pig producers  are not obligated to provide access to the outdoors where pigs can engage in natural behaviours such as grazing, wallowing in mud, walking around and nosing or manipulating their environment.  [45]   Painful mutilations of young piglets, including tail docking, teeth clipping and castration without pain relief, continue to be permitted.  [46]   Natural materials such as straw for sleeping and nesting, while encouraged,  are not mandatory, rendering many pigs subject to a miserable life on concrete floors.  [47]   Thus, whilst it is correct to say that the Pig Code has recently been reviewed, the upshot of that review, other than largely reinstating the existing system, was to defer phasing out sow stalls for a decade. If sow stalls are phased out in 2017 as mentioned above, then Australia will still be 14 years behind the EU which hasnt allowed new stalls to be built since 2003. Australia will also be markedly behind eight US States including, most recently, Michigan, which is scheduled to phase out sow stalls over the next decade. No Australian jurisdiction has even meaningfully debated a ban on sow stalls. Their spin on the Poultry Code appears to have overlooked the section conveniently titled hatchery management which allows approximately ten million culled or surplus hatchlings (predominately male chicks) to be disposed of by carbon dioxide gassing or quick maceration as if they are trash, which technically they are in industry terms, since they are of no economic utility.  [48]  AE CLs press release also failed to mention that conventional battery cages are scheduled to be phased out across the European Union by 2012, whereas several attempts to introduce a ban in Australia have met considerable resistance.  [49]   Further to the above, a number of European countries have taken a leadership role in the area of chicken meat

symbolism in bless the beast and children Essay -- essays research pap

Throughout the novel Bless the Beasts and Children, by Glendon Swarthout, symbolism is used frequently to show a weakness in a character or to fulfill a purpose in the novel. The most apparent weaknesses in the bedwetters was their need for radios to help them sleep. The hats portrayed each characters personality and background in some cases. Also, The Box Canyon Boys Camp is in itself a symbol representing American society in general. The radios are the first case of symbolism shown in the novel. They are used by each and every one of the bedwetters at night to help them go to sleep. To them it helps to imagine someone is right there with them when the radios are going. On some nights, like the one at the start of the novel each of them have their radios going full blast, this shows the fear each of them have at the beginning of the novel. The children aren’t afraid of being so far from home or from their parents because each of them are plenty used to that. All of their parents go on trips away from home for long periods of time or when they are home just simply neglect them. The radios help represent something being there for them when they are afraid because their parents never are. Towards the end of the novel when the boys are herding the buffalo out of the cages it is very easy for them to throw the radios at the buffalo without missing them. This was put into the novel to show to the readers that the boys no longer need the radios in order to sleep at night and that ...

Philosophy of Education Essay -- Philosophy of Teaching Statement

Philosophy of Education School. What is school? School is something where kids go five days a week to learn new things each day. School is where they get a good education so when they get out of college they can go get a high paying job and support their family. Having an education is something that will help you when you get in the real world. Education is something that has helped me to pursue my dream, which is to go to college and get a job as a teacher, which was influenced by my father. In my paper I plan to tell you about my views of nature of knowledge, purpose of education, why education is important, what I want to accomplish as a teacher, what one want the students to accomplish, methods, discipline, and curriculum. Today children are classified into three groups AP , intermediate, and LED. The children are strongly influenced by their environment just as Plato had said. If kids were born with the same intelligence, then we wouldn't have to classify them into three groups. One example to show that Rousseau' s theory was wrong is when I was in second grade and the teacher have us a reading test. The test was to see who could read well enough to move to a higher reading level. Some of us moved and some didn't. If Rousseau's theory was right that every student had the same intelligence, then every kid would have passed the test and moved to a higher reading level. However if kids that weren't read to as a kid are more likely to have lower scores in reading. Knowledge is the particular range of one's information or acquaintance with facts. This is something that is absolute and by that it means it will never change. What you learn can only make you understand life more. Life is knowledge, if you k... ...o think physical education classes can be good for teaching the students the importance of team work. The reason I think Health is important, is because most kids today doesn't know how the body works and don't know how to eat a healthy diet. Health goes right along with P .E. , because in Physical Education I'm promoting physical activity and in Health I'm promoting proper eating habits. It all ties in together on how to have a properly fit and healthy body that can produce a long healthy life. Many of the views that I gave you are similar to the views of Plato's. Many of the views discussed why education is so important in a person's life. Having a education is something that will help you beyond the work force it will help you in life itself. If it wasn't for the education that I have received over the years, I wouldn't be pursuing my dream as a teacher.

hamlet Essay -- essays research papers

Appearance can be defined as a superficial aspect; a semblance; or pretending something is the case in order to make a good impression. Reality on the other hand can be defined as the state of being actual or real; the state of the world as it really is rather than as you might want it to be. It is undeniably noticeable that throughout Shakespeare’s Hamlet many characters are playing roles: acting rather than being. This unquestionably reminds the reader of reality, where a person can play various roles. In reality, as well as in the play, it is not always easy to distinguish what is true from what only appears to be true. Throughout Hamlet, Shakespeare illuminates the theme of appearance versus reality by portraying principal characters. The principal characters put on an act to conceal their true motives and use it to carry out that motivation as well. The character Polonius reveals this theme stronger than any other character in the play. Throughout the play we see him as a noble and honest man who means well for his family and is a vital link between his son Laertes and daughter Ophelia. But in truth, Polonius is desperately attempting to keep up the appearance of a loving and caring man, in order to prove himself to be of a high status. Before Laertes parts for Paris, Polonius speaks to him and gives him fatherly advice that appears to be meaningful, but in reality is hollow, repetitive, and without feeling. This speech is questionably the most deceiving speech of the play, and takes much thought and study to realize Polonius’ real priorities and objectives. In fact, Polonius does not care much to advise his son for his depart, he simply does this to give the appearance of a loving and caring father: â€Å"Be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar. / Those friends thou hast, and their adoption tried, /Grapple them to thy soul with hoops of steel, /But do not dull thy palm with entertainment† (I.iii.65-68). However, at the end of his speech, Polonius makes quite an ironic statement, drastically changing the tone: â€Å"And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. /This above all: to thine own self be true, /And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not be false to any man. /Farewel. My blessing season this in thee!† (I.iii.77-81). Just when Polonius has won the trust of the reader, he sends Reynaldo to spy on Laertes, ultimately revealing Polonius’ inabi... ...d remains calm when insulted by Hamlet, while any other king would have gotten infuriated: â€Å"A little more than kin, and less than kind.† (I.ii.66). Claudius’ actions therefore make it difficult to depict the truth about him. This adds to the mystery of whether Claudius is a good king or merely a conniving liar. Each character in Hamlet is presented in a positive light, making it far more difficult for the reader to uncover the buried truth about the motives of each character. The principal characters blur the border between appearance and reality. Polonius, striving to appear the wonderful father while unable to avoid his conniving mentality; Hamlet, appearing insane and selfish when controlled and selfless; and of course King Claudius, smiling and kissing his sister-in-law/wife while wishing away the guilt of the murder of his own brother. These characters are complex and are a window through the appearances in our world to our reality. Shakespeare’s technique perfectly embodies the humanity of each of these characters, and sends this message right at the beginning of the play when all appears to be fine, but in reality, â€Å"Something is rotten in the state of Denmark.† (I.iv.99)

Reflective Journal Teaching Essay

At the end of an Early Years session, we expect the children to be seated on the carpet for their parents to collect them. One of the children was finding it very difficult to co-operate, and continued to move around the classroom, walking and running, picking up toys and making noise. I asked the child to sit down but receive no response. I then asked again for her to sit down and began to move towards her in a way that indicated I was likely to sit her down myself. At that point the child giggled and ran away from me quickly, shouting loudly and refusing to come to the carpet area I felt it was very important the child sat down, with no toys in her hand, and I was concerned other children would copy her behaviour. I felt embarrassed to be under the child’s control! The child seemed to be enjoying this and I did not feel confident at all and immediately regretted trying to move towards her. However I had done so because I felt I imperative all the children were ready quickly as we were running a little late for the end of the session, and the class teacher had already gone to open the door to let the parents in! . I believe I should have acted in a more adaptable manner. I could have considered an alternative way to encourage her to sit where she should be. In Dewey’s publication How We Think (1910) Dewey draws the readers attention to routine action and reflective action, where routine action is largely pre set guidelines, not giving consideration to individual circumstances. Reflective action is considering the individual situation and adjusting as necessary (1910). I should have reflected on the situation as it were happening. The child could have been quickly pacified with a small activity- perhaps helping me to tidy the books away – whilst this is not common practice, it would have still achieved her quietly remaining on the carpet until her parent arrived. I needed to adjust the pre-set guidelines to the individual situation. Dewey also believed we should draw on past experiences whenever possible (1910) and I will consider this in the case of this child. A small adaptation of the rules to meet her needs would be in everybody’s best interests. Allowing the child to have an item or engage in a quiet activity at certain times could encourage a more positive response from her while she settles into the school environment. I will continue to keep a reflective journal so I am encouraged to think more independently and learn to become adaptable. I feel reflecting on experiences and learning from what happens – and seeing the outcome when I put ideas into practice – will help me to grow in confidence and become more effective Practitioner. It will prevent me from being becoming unable to develop individual responses to unique situations. It is imperative that we learn to reflect on our actions. If we don’t, we will simply be Turned into low level operatives†¦while remaining blind to large issues of the underlying purposes and results of schooling (Griffiths and Tann, Ripples in Reflection 1991:100).